Learning Theory Notes
Information Processing (Learning and memory model)
Stimulus - Attn (engage/holding)- STM - LTM - Retention - Retrieval
"One assumption of the human IP theory is that it is analogous to computer processing, in that it receives information, stores it in memory, and retrieves it as necessary" (Schunk, 1996).
- strategies = chunking, mnemonics, serial position;
- forgetting = no STM->LTM strategies; decay; interference;
- remembering = high capacity, strategies, prior knowledge
"There are certain steps involved in the memory modeling process: (1) Attention; (2) Retention; (3) Reproduction; and (4) Motivation" (Bandura, 1977b).
"The first step in a sequence of learning and memory events is for the learner to attend to a stimulus and attention is the focus on a stimulus" (Gagne, 1973).
"There are three criteria for learning to take place: behavioral change, or change in the capacity for behavior; the change endures over time; and, it occurs through practice or other forms of experience" (Schunk, 1996).
Self-Regulated Learning
* Self-regulated learners are students whose academic learning abilities and self-discipline makes learning easier so motivation is maintained.
- If the learner is self-regulating, that is if they are constantly, and consciously, monitoring their comprehension and correcting comprehension failures, they will know if they have met their goals.
"Self-regulation is controlling our own behavior" (Bandura, 1977).
"Self-regulatory learners 1) tend to learn better under learner control; 2) are able to monitor, evaluate, or manage their learning effectively; 3) reduce instructional time required to complete the lesson; and 4) manage their learning and time efficiently" (Yang, 1993).
"Involvement in self-regulatory learning is tied closely to student efficacy beliefs" (Pintrich, 1990).
"A participant's belief in their capabilities is more likely to lead to higher levels of self-regulated learning. They developed the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire which indicated that intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy had substantial effects on self-regulated learning" (Garcia and Pintrich, 1991).
Self-regulated learning strategies are actions and processes directed at acquiring information or skill that involve agency, purpose, and instrumentality perceptions by learners (Zimmerman, 1989).
"Self-regulated learning includes the beliefs that learners hold with respect to their capabilities for learning (self-efficacy)" (Schunk, 1990).
Self-efficacy
* Self-Efficacy is personal belief that one has the capabilities to produce a wanted behavior.
*It influences the choices we make, the effort we put forth, how long we persist when we confront obstacles and how we feel.
"Self efficacy is the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations" (Bandura, 1986).
"Belief concerning one's own capabilities to organize and implement actions necessary to attain designated performance levels" (Bandura, 1989).
"Students with high self-efficacy, work harder, persist longer when difficulties are present and achieve at higher levels. Successes raise and failures lower self-efficacy. Although low self-eff is detrimental, effective self-reg does not require that it be exceptionally high. (Zimmerman, 1991),
"A slightly lower sense of self-eff leads to greater mental effort and better learning than does extremene confidence" (Salomon (1984).
Constructivism
* Constructivist approach is a view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivist approaches to learning assume that subjectivity is critical because learners take in information and process it in unique ways that reflect their needs, dispositions, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings
"The basic idea of constructivism is that knowledge must be constructed by the learner, it cannot be supplied by the teacher. (Bringuier, 1980).
"A well must produce its own water" (Farsi proverb).
"Constructivism espouses creating meaning from experience" (Jonassen, 1991).
"Constructivism is not a theory about teaching. It is a theory about knowledge and learning that process and learning occurs daily and relentlessly in classrooms" (Brooks and Brooks, 1993).
"For a constuctivist approach, engage students in authentic tasks, assist students with producing knowledge bases that promote the application of information, and diversity of thought; build learning communities linking students and promote substantial, applicable learning rather than mere credentialing" (Brandt, 1992).
"Teachers are coordinators, facilitators, advisors, tutors or coaches" (Gergen, 1995).
"Constructivism is best used when goals are to use higher-order thinking skills, to understand the cause or effects of ideas or actions" (Zahorik, 1995).
"Rational constructivism recognizes the dynamic nature of learning or the mediation of new knowledge by old during the interpretation-reflection process" (Winn, 1991).
Metacognition
Metacognition means to understand what you're thinking about.
The awareness and control individuals have over their cognitive process - create self-reg.
"The deliberate conscious control of one's cognitive activity" (Brown, 1980).
"Metacognition is "thinking about thinking" (Yussen, 1985).
"Metacognition is "ones knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products and anything related to them." (Flavell, 1987).
"Teachers and students should 'think out loud', thus reflecting on their own reasoning process (metacognition)" (Glynn, 1990).
Operant conditioning - behavioristic theory (rein)- SKINNER - 1930s
- Sniffy the mouse; Rat and bar; Pigeon and pecking
"conditioning refers to the strengthening of behavior which results from reinforcement"(Skinner, 1965).
"Skinner's (1953) view was that a response to stimuli becomes more likely to occur as a function of the consequences of responding"
- 2 types of conditioning: Type S = Pavlovian Conditioning (pair reinUCS w/CS) &
Type R - Skinner to emphasize response and operant is sense that operates on env.
SD -> R -> SR - Primary REIN (food, water, air) & Secondary REIN.
Positive/Negative REIN and punishment - Shaping
Social cognitive theory - BANDURA (bobo doll - model) - 1960s
- by observing others, people acquire knowledge, etc... thus, modelling & conseq.
- modify their environment and develop self regulatory mechanisms (social learning).
- observational learn - attn-ret-prod-motivation
"Self-efficacy are the beliefs concerning one's capabilities" (Bandura, 1982).
"another feature of social cognitive theory is its role in self-reg learning" (Bandura, 1986).
"In social cognitive theory, leaning is largely an IP activity in which info about structure of behavior transformed into symbolic representation" (Bandura, 1986).
Cognitive Development - PIAGET - 1970s
Trained as a biologist(mollusks) - stage theorist - curiosity - father of constructivism - cognition is a constructive process - In devlopment, children assimilate, accomodate, and equilibrate -
In Piaget's view, intelligence consists of two interrelated processes, organization and adaptation. People organize their thoughts so that they make sense, separating the more important thoughts from the less important ones as well as connecting one idea to another. At the same time, people adapt their thinking to include new ideas, as new experiences provide additional information. This adaptation occurs in two ways, through assimilation and accommodation. In the former process, new information is simply added to the cognitive organization already there. In the latter, the intellectual organization has to change somewhat to adjust to the new idea (Berger, 1978).
Equilibration is the organism's attempt to keep its cognitive structures in balance. This explains the motivation for development;
When a child encounters some information that does not match their current schemes, an imbalance; or disequilibrium, results. States of disequilibrium are intrinsically dissatisfying, and there is an attempt to reinstate equilibrium. - achieved by altering one's cognitive structures.
There are three tenets of Piaget's theory:
(1) development is stagelike; (2) development is domain general; and (3) constructivism:
{stages; sensorimotor, preoperational. concrete operational, formal operational}
Contextualist/Social - VYGOTSKY - 1900s
- adaptive capacity - ability of humans to alter environ;
- socially meaningful activity - social influence cognition through tools, i.e culture, which is ->
Dialectic constructivism - building behvaviors through talking or social interaction (conversation) and dialectic = constant change toward conflicting/contradicting elements- designed to enhance participants' abilities in reasoning and argument.
- self-reg in the form of reg thoughts, private speech & scaffolding; & metacognition.
- Zone of Proximal Development - distance between actual development level by themselves and the level of potential dev under adult guidance - thus, represents the amount of learning possible given the proper instructor.